Einstein's equation E = mc² changed physics! Special relativity (1905) introduced time dilation, length contraction, and the equivalence of mass and energy. General relativity (1915) described gravity as the curvature of spacetime. Einstein was a German-born Jew who fled Nazi Germany in 1933. He settled in the United States and became a citizen. He was offered the presidency of Israel in 1952 (he declined). He signed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning that Germany might develop an atomic bomb, which led to the Manhattan Project. Einstein later regretted his role. His brain was removed during his autopsy and preserved for scientific study (it was later found to have an unusual structure, but the significance is debated). He was named Time magazine's "Person of the Century" in 1999. His image is one of the most recognizable in the world. Einstein was also a violinist and enjoyed playing Mozart. He was a pacifist and civil rights activist. He spoke out against racism and supported the Zionist movement (but not a Jewish state). He wrote about the importance of imagination: "Imagination is more important than knowledge." He was a poor student? Myth – he excelled in math and physics. He did not fail math (a common myth). He was a professor at the University of Berlin, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zurich), and the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. He died in 1955. He refused surgery, saying, "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially." His ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.

Newton's first law is the law of inertia! His second law is F = ma (force equals mass times acceleration). His third law is action-reaction (for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction). Newton developed calculus in 1665-1666 (his "annus mirabilis" or miracle year) but did not publish it until later, leading to a bitter dispute with Leibniz over priority. His book "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (1687) is considered the most important scientific work ever written. He also studied alchemy (unsuccessfully) and theology (he wrote more about religion than science). He served as President of the Royal Society (1703-1727) and as Master of the Royal Mint. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705. His face appears on British one-pound notes (old currency). He is buried in Westminster Abbey. The story of the apple falling from a tree inspired his work on gravity, but it is likely embellished. Newton was a difficult man (he had feuds with other scientists, including Robert Hooke and Gottfried Leibniz). He never married. He was born on Christmas Day (December 25, 1642, under the Julian calendar). The Newtonian telescope (reflecting) used a mirror instead of a lens (avoiding chromatic aberration). Newton also discovered that white light is composed of a spectrum of colors (using a prism). The unit of force (newton, N) is named after him. Newton is considered one of the greatest scientists in history.

Marie Curie died from radiation exposure! She carried test tubes of radium in her pockets and kept them in her desk drawer. She died at age 66. Her remains were moved to the Panthéon in Paris in 1995 – the first woman honored there for her own achievements (not as a wife). Her daughter Irène Joliot-Curie also won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1935). The curie (unit of radioactivity) is named after her. Albert Einstein said of her: "Marie Curie is, of all celebrated beings, the only one whom fame has not corrupted." She was the first female professor at the Sorbonne. When she won her second Nobel Prize, the French Academy of Sciences had still not elected her as a member (they never did). She developed mobile X-ray units ("Little Curies") during World War I. She was a dedicated scientist who refused to patent her discoveries, believing that scientific knowledge should be shared freely. She was also a strong advocate for women in science. The element curium (Cm) is named after her and Pierre Curie. Marie Curie is an icon of science. Her legacy continues to inspire young scientists, especially women.

Darwin's finches are the correct answer! Darwin also studied tortoises (different shell shapes on different islands), mockingbirds, and fossils of extinct giant mammals in South America. He sailed on HMS Beagle for five years (1831-1836). He delayed publishing his theory for over 20 years because he feared controversy. When he finally published, he was shocked by the reaction. Thomas Huxley ("Darwin's Bulldog") defended him vigorously. The famous Oxford debate (1860) between Huxley and Bishop Wilberforce turned the tide of public opinion. Darwin's theory was not fully accepted until the early 20th century, when genetics (Gregor Mendel) provided the mechanism. Darwin is buried in Westminster Abbey (near Isaac Newton). He was a close friend of botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker and geologist Charles Lyell, whose "Principles of Geology" influenced him. Darwin suffered from chronic illness (possibly Chagas disease from a bug bite in South America). He was a devoted family man (he married his cousin Emma Wedgwood). They had ten children, three of whom died young. Darwin was a abolitionist who opposed slavery. His theory of evolution is the unifying theory of biology. It explains the diversity of life on Earth. Darwin's face appears on the British ten-pound note.

Galileo discovered Jupiter's moons! He observed them in January 1610. This was a revolutionary discovery because it proved that celestial bodies could orbit something other than Earth, challenging the geocentric (Earth-centered) model. Galileo also observed the phases of Venus, which could only be explained by a heliocentric model. He wrote "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems" (1632), comparing the Copernican and Ptolemaic models. The Church banned the book and put him on trial. He was forced to recant ("And yet it moves" – "E pur si muove" – is a famous quote he probably never said). He lived under house arrest for nine years, becoming blind before his death. He was a contemporary of Shakespeare (who died the same year). The Vatican formally acknowledged its error in 1992. Galileo also studied physics: he discovered the law of falling bodies (all objects fall at the same rate, ignoring air resistance). He conducted experiments with inclined planes (though the Leaning Tower of Pisa story is apocryphal). He invented the thermometer (though not the mercury thermometer). He was a devout Catholic who believed that science and faith could coexist. The Galileo affair is often cited as a conflict between science and religion. Galileo is considered one of the greatest scientists in history. The Galileo spacecraft studied Jupiter and its moons. The Galilean moons are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Europa is thought to have a subsurface ocean and could harbor life. Ganymede is the largest moon in the solar system.

Nikola Tesla invented the AC motor! He worked for Thomas Edison briefly but left after a dispute. He later worked for George Westinghouse, who bought Tesla's AC patents. The AC system won the "War of the Currents" because AC could be transmitted over long distances (using transformers). Tesla also invented the Tesla coil (high-voltage transformer) used in radio and television. He experimented with wireless power (Wardenclyffe Tower) but ran out of funding. He claimed to have received signals from Mars (he was mistaken). Tesla died in poverty in a New York City hotel. His work was largely forgotten for decades, but he has gained fame in recent years. The Tesla electric car company (Elon Musk) is named after him. Tesla held over 300 patents. He had a photographic memory and spoke eight languages. He was a vegetarian and claimed to sleep only two hours per night (he napped instead). He never married. He had a rivalry with Edison (Tesla was more visionary, Edison was more practical). The unit of magnetic field strength (tesla, T) is named after him. Tesla's personality was eccentric: he had OCD, a fear of germs, and an obsession with the number 3. He died on January 7, 1943. His ashes are displayed in a golden sphere at the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Serbia. Tesla is considered a brilliant inventor and a tragic figure. His ideas about wireless power are being revisited.

Ada Lovelace was the first computer programmer! She translated an article about Babbage's Analytical Engine and added her own notes, which were three times longer than the original. In her notes, she described an algorithm for the engine to compute Bernoulli numbers – the first published algorithm. She also predicted that machines could eventually compose music and produce graphics. She was the daughter of the poet Lord Byron (whom she never met). Her mother insisted she study mathematics to avoid inheriting her father's "poetic madness." She died of cancer at age 36 (the same age as her father). She was buried next to Lord Byron, at her request, in the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, Nottinghamshire. Ada Lovelace Day is celebrated on the second Tuesday of October to honor women in STEM. The programming language "Ada" was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense in the 1970s-1980s. She is a role model for women in computing. Her notes anticipated the concept of computer software by over 100 years. Charles Babbage called her "the Enchantress of Numbers." The Analytical Engine was never built during Babbage's lifetime (due to lack of funding), but a working replica has been built. Ada Lovelace is a symbol of the early history of computing.

Pasteurization was invented by Louis Pasteur! He originally developed it to prevent wine and beer from spoiling. The process involves heating the liquid to 60-70°C (140-160°F) for a short time, then cooling it rapidly. Pasteur also disproved spontaneous generation (the idea that life arises from non-living matter) through his famous swan-neck flask experiment. His rabies vaccine saved a young boy named Joseph Meister (1885), who had been bitten by a rabid dog. The Pasteur Institute opened in 1888. Pasteur suffered a stroke in 1868 that partially paralyzed him, but he continued working. He is buried at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. The process named after him (pasteurization) is used worldwide to make milk safe. Pasteur's work on germ theory led to the development of antiseptics (Joseph Lister) and vaccines. The germ theory of disease states that many diseases are caused by microorganisms. This revolutionized medicine. Before Pasteur, doctors did not wash their hands or sterilize instruments, leading to high rates of infection. Pasteur also developed vaccines for chicken cholera and anthrax. He is considered one of the founders of microbiology. The term "pasteurization" is named after him. He was a devout Catholic. His motto was "In the fields of observation, chance favors only the prepared mind."

Rachel Carson wrote "Silent Spring"! The book was met with fierce opposition from the chemical industry. Carson was attacked as a "hysterical woman" and a "communist." Despite this, she testified before Congress and sparked public concern. President John F. Kennedy ordered an investigation, which supported Carson's findings. DDT was banned in the United States in 1972. The bald eagle and peregrine falcon populations recovered. The EPA was created in 1970. Carson died of breast cancer in 1964, before seeing the impact of her work. She is considered a hero of the environmental movement. "Silent Spring" is often cited as one of the most influential books of the 20th century. Carson was a trained scientist (Master's degree in zoology from Johns Hopkins). She worked for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. She wrote several books about the ocean before "Silent Spring." She was a shy, private person who became a public figure out of a sense of duty. The Rachel Carson National Wildlife Refuge in Maine is named after her. She is buried in Maryland. Her legacy continues to inspire environmental activists. The modern environmental movement includes Earth Day (first celebrated in 1970). Carson's work shows the power of science to influence policy. She is a role model for scientists and environmentalists.

Hawking radiation is named after Stephen Hawking! He was diagnosed with ALS (Lou Gehrig's disease) at age 21 and given only a few years to live. He defied the odds and lived for 55 more years, eventually becoming almost completely paralyzed and communicating through a speech-generating device. He was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University (the same chair held by Isaac Newton). His book "A Brief History of Time" sold over 10 million copies. He appeared on "The Simpsons," "Star Trek: The Next Generation," and "The Big Bang Theory." He was a popular science communicator. Hawking also worked on the theory of the origin of the universe (no boundary proposal). He made important contributions to our understanding of the Big Bang. He believed that the universe could have created itself from nothing (no need for a creator). He was an atheist. He warned about the dangers of artificial intelligence, contact with aliens, and climate change. He died on March 14, 2018 (Albert Einstein's birthday and Pi Day). His ashes are interred in Westminster Abbey (near Newton and Darwin). His voice synthesizer (the "Hawking voice") became iconic. He has a cameo in the film "The Theory of Everything" (about his life). The Stephen Hawking Medal for Science Communication is awarded to those who promote science to the public. He is considered one of the greatest physicists of his generation. His ability to overcome physical challenges inspired millions. Hawking is a symbol of the power of the human mind. His work on black holes and the origin of the universe will be remembered for generations.