Napoleon was actually average height! The myth of the "short" Napoleon (the "Napoleon complex" – a short man compensating by being aggressive) is false. The confusion came from French and English measurements. Napoleon was often surrounded by his Imperial Guard (who were required to be tall), making him appear shorter by comparison. British cartoonist James Gillray popularized the short Napoleon caricature. Napoleon's height was 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm). The average French male height in 1800 was about 5 feet 5 inches (165 cm). He was not unusually short. The myth persists today, but historians agree it is propaganda.

Washington's dentures were not wood! The myth of wooden teeth likely arose because wood was a common material for dentures in the 1700s (but it was rarely used). Washington's dentures were designed by John Greenwood, a pioneering dentist. Washington had constant tooth pain. He lost his last natural tooth by age 60. His dentures required frequent adjustment. He is often depicted with a pained expression in portraits because his dentures were uncomfortable. The dentures survive and are on display at Mount Vernon (and the National Museum of Dentistry in Baltimore). The myth of wooden teeth is a classic historical error that persists in popular culture. Washington never wore wooden dentures.

The Great Wall is not visible from space! The myth originated in the 1930s and was repeated by Richard Halliburton. Astronauts have confirmed they cannot see the Wall. The Wall is only about 30 feet (9 meters) wide – far too narrow to resolve from orbit. The human eye can resolve objects about 0.1 mile (0.16 km) across from low Earth orbit. The Wall's materials (stone and earth) blend with the natural landscape. The myth is a classic example of a popular historical falsehood. The Great Wall is 13,000 miles (21,000 km) long, but its thin profile makes it invisible from space. Some astronauts have reported seeing the lights of cities or large rivers, but not the Wall.

Marie Antoinette never said it! The phrase was used to portray the queen as out of touch. Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote the phrase in 1765 (when Marie Antoinette was 9). He did not attribute it to her. Anti-monarchist writers later attached the phrase to her because she was an unpopular queen (the "Austrian woman"). Marie Antoinette was vilified during the French Revolution. She was executed by guillotine in 1793. The phrase is a classic example of historical propaganda. Marie Antoinette was actually known for charitable works (she adopted several orphans). She wrote letters expressing concern for the poor. The "cake" myth persists because it fits the narrative of a heartless aristocracy. Modern historians agree the quote is apocryphal.

Columbus did not discover North America! He made four voyages, exploring the Caribbean and the coasts of Central and South America. His landfalls included the Bahamas (he called it San Salvador), Cuba (which he thought was China), and Hispaniola (now Haiti/Dominican Republic). On his third voyage (1498), he reached South America (Venezuela). He never saw the mainland of the future United States. Leif Erikson, a Norse explorer, reached Newfoundland, Canada, around 1000 CE (L'Anse aux Meadows archaeological site). John Cabot, sailing for England, reached Newfoundland in 1497. Columbus's voyages were important, but he was not the first European in the Americas – just the first to establish sustained contact.

The pyramids were built by paid workers! Archaeological excavations at Giza (near the pyramids) have uncovered workers' cemeteries, bakeries, and sleeping quarters. Workers were organized into gangs (with names like "Friends of Khufu"). They received a daily ration of bread, beer, and meat. They were buried in simple tombs near the pyramids (slaves would not have been buried with such care). The myth of Hebrew slaves building the pyramids comes from the Biblical story of Moses and Exodus. However, there is no archaeological evidence that the Hebrews ever lived in Egypt in large numbers. The pyramids were built around 2560-2540 BCE; the Exodus is traditionally dated to about 1300 BCE (the pyramids were already ancient by then).

Salem accused were hanged! The Salem witch trials (1692-1693) resulted in 20 executions: 19 hanged (14 women, 5 men) and one man (Giles Corey) pressed to death (heavy stones placed on his chest for refusing to enter a plea). No one was burned. Burning was common in Europe but not in New England. The myth may come from European witch hunts or from confusion with other historical events. The Salem trials were a dark chapter in American history. Governor William Phips ended the trials and pardoned the accused. The last "witch" was exonerated in 1957 (Ann Pudeator). The myth persists in popular culture. The Salem Witch Museum educates visitors about the actual events.

Einstein did not fail math! He was a prodigy in mathematics and physics. He taught himself calculus at 15. He wrote his first scientific paper at 16. The myth may have originated from a misreading of his grades (some schools used a 1-6 scale where 1 was best; when he received a grade of 3, it was average, not failing). Einstein also joked about the myth, saying, "I never failed in mathematics... Before I was fifteen I had mastered differential and integral calculus." The myth persists because it is comforting to believe that a genius struggled in school. But Einstein's early brilliance is well documented. He was a top student in his class. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 (for the photoelectric effect).

Nero did not fiddle! The violin/fiddle did not exist in ancient Rome. The fire started in the Circus Maximus (chariot racing stadium) on July 18, 64 CE. Nero was in Antium, 35 miles away. He returned to open his palace to the homeless and organized food supplies. He also rebuilt the city with wider streets and fireproof buildings. However, he did use the cleared space to build his extravagant Golden House (Domus Aurea). He blamed the fire on Christians, leading to their persecution. The myth of Nero fiddling comes from later historians (Suetonius, Cassius Dio) and from anti-Nero propaganda. The phrase "fiddling while Rome burns" means neglecting problems while focusing on trivial matters.

The Wild West was not as violent as movies portray! Most towns required visitors to check their guns. Tombstone, Arizona (site of the O.K. Corral shootout) had a gun-control ordinance. The shootout lasted only 30 seconds and killed three men. Cattle towns like Dodge City had strict weapons laws. The myth was created by dime novels (popular from the 1860s), Buffalo Bill's Wild West show (featuring "cowboys and Indians"), and Hollywood Westerns (from the 1920s onward). The actual American frontier was dangerous for other reasons: disease, accidents, exposure, and hostile wildlife. Gun violence was not common. The Wild West myth continues to shape popular perception. Historians call this the "frontier myth" or "Western myth."